Massively parallel sequencing of millions of <30-nt class="search-term-highlight">RNAs expressed in mouse ovary, embryonic pancreas (E14.5), and insulin-secreting beta-cells (βTC-3) reveals that ∼50% of the mature miRNAs representing mostly the mmu-let-7 family display internal insertion/deletions and substitutions when compared to precursor miRNA and the mouse genome reference sequences.

Approximately, 12%–20% of species associated with mmu-let-7 populations exhibit sequence discrepancies that are dramatically reduced in nucleotides 3–7 (5′-seed) and 10–15 (cleavage and anchor sites). This observation is inconsistent with sequencing error and leads us to propose that the changes arise predominantly from post-transcriptional RNA-editing activity operating on miRNA:target mRNA complexes.

Internal nucleotide modifications are most enriched at the ninth nucleotide position. A common ninth base edit of U-to-G results in a significant increase in stability of down-regulated let-7a targets in inhibin-deficient mice (Inha^−/−). An excess of U-insertions (14.8%) over U-deletions (1.5%) and the presence of cleaved intermediates suggest that a mammalian TUTase (terminal uridylyl transferase) mediated dUTP-dependent U-insertion/U-deletion cycle may be a possible mechanism.

We speculate that mRNA target site-directed editing of mmu-let-7a duplex-bulges stabilizes “loose” miRNA:mRNA target associations and functions to expand the target repertoire and/or enhance mRNA decay over translational repression. Our results also demonstrate that the systematic study of sequence variation within specific RNA classes in a given cell type from millions of sequences generated by next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies (“intranomics”) can be used broadly to infer functional constraints on specific parts of completely uncharacterized RNAs.

Source - http://genome.cshlp.org/content/18/10/1571.abstract?sid=40206306-7c2e-4b18-96b3-8319fa594a4b

We undertook a genome-wide search for novel noncoding RNAs (ncRNA) in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. We used the RNAz program to predict structures in the noncoding regions of the P. falciparum 3D7 genome that were conserved with at least one of seven other Plasmodium spp.

genome sequences. By using Northern blot analysis for 76 high-scoring predictions and microarray analysis for the majority of candidates, we have verified the expression of 33 novel ncRNA transcripts including four members of a ncRNA family in the asexual blood stage. These transcripts represent novel structured ncRNAs in P. falciparumand are not represented in any RNA databases.

We provide supporting evidence for purifying selection acting on the experimentally verified ncRNAs by comparing the nucleotide substitutions in the predicted ncRNA candidate structures in P. falciparum with the closely related chimp malaria parasite P. reichenowi. The high confirmation rate within a single parasite life cycle stage suggests that many more of the predictions may be expressed in other stages of the organism’s life cycle.

Source - http://genome.cshlp.org/content/18/2/281.abstract?sid=40206306-7c2e-4b18-96b3-8319fa594a4b

We have conducted a survey of RNA editing in human brain by comparing sequences of clones from a human brain cDNA library to the reference human genome sequence and to genomic DNA from the same individual. In the RNA sample from which the library was constructed, 01:2000 nucleotides were edited out of >3 Mb surveyed. All edits were adenosine to inosine (A→I) and were predominantly in intronic and in intergenic RNAs.

No edits were found in translated exons and few in untranslated exons. Most edits were in high-copy-number repeats, usually Alus. Analysis of the genome in the vicinity of edited sequences strongly supports the idea that formation of intramolecular double-stranded RNAwith an inverted copy underlies most A→I editing.

The likelihood of editing is increased by the presence of two inverted copies of a sequence within the same intron, proximity of the two sequences to each other (preferably within 2 kb), and by a high density of inverted copies in the vicinity. Editing exhibits sequence preferences and is less likely at an adenosine 3′ to a guanosine and more likely at an adenosine 5′ to a guanosine. Simulation by BLAST alignment of the double-stranded RNA molecules that underlie known edits indicates that there is a greater likelihood of A→I editing at A:C mismatches than editing at other mismatches or at A:U matches. However, because A:U matches in double-stranded RNA are more common than all mismatches, overall the likely effect of editing is to increase the number of mismatches in double-stranded RNA.

Source - http://genome.cshlp.org/content/14/12/2379.abstract?sid=4be18750-d5af-4896-b05e-eeb49c944425

One dose of vaccine may be effective to protect infants and children and reduce transmission of the H1N1 virus, according to a study in JAMA, just published online because of its public health implications. The study will appear in the January 6 print edition of the journal.

Initial reports of 2009 influenza A(H1N1) infection in many countries have largely involved children, especially those attending school. Reports have also indicated high hospitalization rates of children younger than 5 years of age in the current pandemic, according to background information provided by the authors. "The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices also currently recommends that infants and children aged 9 years or younger receive two doses of H1N1 influenza vaccine at least 21 days apart, based on existing experience with seasonal trivalent influenza vaccines in this age group."

Terry Nolan, M.B.B.S., Ph.D., from the University of Melbourne, Australia and colleagues assessed the effectiveness and safety of two doses of a 2009 influenza A(H1N1) vaccine in 370 healthy infants and children ages six-months to less than 9 years living in Australia. The children were randomized into groups that received a two-injection regimen 21 days apart in doses of either 15-micrograms or 30-micrograms of the vaccine.

"Following the first dose of vaccine, antibody titers of 1:40 or greater were observed in 161 of 174 infants and children in the 15-microgram group (92.5 percent) and in 168 of 172 infants and children in the 30 microgram group (97.7 percent)," the authors report. "All participants demonstrated antibody titers of 1:40 or greater after the second vaccine dose," [which means that every child achieved an antibody level considered high enough to protect against the H1N1 virus]. The researchers note that the majority of adverse reactions to the vaccine were mild to moderate in severity. The immune responses to the vaccine were strong regardless of age, baseline antibody status, or whether the child had received a seasonal influenza vaccination prior to this study.

"Our findings suggest that a single dose 15-microgram dose vaccine regimen may be effective and well tolerated in children, and may have positive implications for disease protection and reduced transmission of pandemic H1N1 in the wider population," the authors conclude.

Editor's Note: This study was sponsored by CSL Limited with funding from the Australian government's Department of Health and Ageing.

Editorial: 2009 Influenza A(H1N1) Vaccines for Children

"Even though influenza activity has decreased in recent weeks in some states, there remains the possibility of continued activity through the traditional winter influenza season and the prospect of normal winter circulation of seasonal influenza viruses," and the authors of the editorial note that this pandemic has highlighted the fact the children have no measurable immunity against the H1N1 virus.

Anthony E. Fiore, M.D., M.P.H., from the National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, and Kathleen M. Neuzil, M.D., M.P.H., of PATH, Seattle, write that children have been a primary source of illness in community outbreaks of pandemic influenza with more severe complications, hospitalizations and deaths from this virus than what is usually seen for seasonal influenza.

The editorial authors urge caution at interpretation of the results of the study. "The hemagglutinin antigen content administered to six-month-old infants and children younger than 3 years in this study was 15-micrograms, the equivalent of two doses of the 7.5-microgram vaccine currently licensed in the United States for this age group."

"The immunogenicity data presented by Nolan et al suggest that at least some children will be protected after a single 15-microgram dose of the H1N1 vaccine used in this study, but the findings cannot be generalized with confidence to all children, epidemiological circumstances in every country, or different vaccine formulations."

In conclusion, the authors write: "… it remains prudent to continue to follow current recommendations for administering two doses to infants and young children while awaiting definitive vaccine effectiveness data."

In both yeast and mammalian systems, considerable progress has been made toward the characterization of the transcription factors required for transcription by RNA polymerase III. However, whereas in yeast all of the RNA polymerase III subunits have been cloned, relatively little is known about the enzyme itself in higher eukaryotes.

For example, no higher eukaryotic sequence corresponding to the largest RNA polymerase III subunit is available. Here we describe the isolation of cDNAs that encode the largest subunit of human RNApolymerase III, as suggested by the observations that

(1) antibodies directed against the cloned protein immunoprecipitate an active enzyme whose sensitivity to different concentrations of α-amanitin is that expected for human RNA polymerase III; and

(2) depletion of transcription extracts with the same antibodies results in inhibition of transcription from an RNA polymerase III, but not from an RNA polymerase II, promoter.

Sequence comparisons reveal that regions conserved in the RNA polymerase I, II, and III largest subunits characterized so far are also conserved in the human RNA polymerase III sequence, and thus probably perform similar functions for the human RNA polymerase III enzyme.

Source - http://genome.cshlp.org/content/7/10/1006.abstract?sid=4be18750-d5af-4896-b05e-eeb49c944425

A biochemist and cook explains that cooking is all about chemistry and knowing some facts can help chefs understand why recipes go wrong. Because cooking is essentially a series of chemical reactions, it is helpful to know some basics. For example, plunging asparagus into boiling water causes the cells to pop and result in a brighter green. Longer cooking, however, causes the plant's cell walls to shrink and releases an acid. This turns the asparagus an unappetizing shade of grey.

You love to cook, but have you whipped up some disasters? Even the best recipes can sometimes go terribly wrong. A nationally recognized scientist and chef says knowing a little chemistry could help.

Long before she was a cook, Shirley Corriher was a biochemist. She says science is the key to understanding what goes right and wrong in the kitchen.

"Cooking is chemistry," said Corriher. "It's essentially chemical reactions."

This kind of chemistry happens when you put chopped red cabbage into a hot pan. Heat breaks down the red anthocyanine pigment, changing it from an acid to alkaline and causing the color change. Add some vinegar to increase the acidity, and the cabbage is red again. Baking soda will change it back to blue.

Cooking vegetables like asparagus causes a different kind of reaction when tiny air cells on the surface hit boiling water.

"If we plunge them into boiling water, we pop these cells, and they suddenly become much brighter green," Corriher said.

Longer cooking is not so good. It causes the plant's cell walls to shrink and release acid.

"So as it starts gushing out of the cells, and with acid in the water, it turns cooked green vegetables into [a] yucky army drab," Corriher said.

And that pretty fruit bowl on your counter? "Literally, overnight you can go from [a] nice green banana to an overripe banana," Corriher said.

The culprit here is ethylene gas. Given off by apples and even the bananas themselves, it can ruin your perfect fruit bowl -- but put an apple in a paper bag with an unripe avocado, and ethylene gas will work for you overnight.

"We use this as a quick way to ripen," Corriher said. Corriher says understanding a little chemistry can help any cook.

"You may still mess up, but you know why," she said. When it works, this kind of chemistry can be downright delicious.

WHAT ARE ACIDS AND BASES? An acid is defined as a solution with more positive hydrogen ions than negative hydroxyl ions, which are made of one atom of oxygen and one of hydrogen. Acidity and basicity are measured on a scale called the pH scale. The value of freshly distilled water is seven, which indicates a neutral solution. A value of less than seven indicates an acid, and a value of more than seven indicates a base. Common acids include lemon juice and coffee, while common bases include ammonia and bleach.

WHY DOES FOOD SPOIL? Processing and improper storage practices can expose food items to heat or oxygen, which causes deterioration. In ancient times, salt was used to cure meats and fish to preserve them longer, while sugar was added to fruits to prevent spoilage. Certain herbs, spices and vinegar can also be used as preservatives, along with anti-oxidants, most notably Vitamins C and E. In processed foods, certain FDA-approved chemical additives also help extend shelf life.

Natural antisense transcripts (NATs) have been shown to play important roles in post-transcriptional regulation through the RNA interference pathway. We have combined pyrophosphate-based high-throughput sequencing and computational analysis to identify and analyze, in genome scale, cis-NAT and trans-NAT small RNAs that are derived under normal conditions and in response to drought and salt stresses in the staple plant Oryza sativa.

Computationally, we identified 344 cis-NATs and 7142 trans-NATs that are formed by protein-coding genes. From the deep sequencing data, we found 108 cis-NATs and 7141trans-NATs that gave rise to small RNAs from their overlapping regions. Consistent with early findings, the majority of these 108 cis-NATs seem to be associated with specific conditions or developmental stages. Our analyses also revealed several interesting results.

The overlapping regions of the cis-NATs and trans-NATs appear to be more enriched with smallRNA loci than non-overlapping regions. The small RNAs generated from cis-NATs and trans-NATs have a length bias of 21 nt, even though their lengths spread over a large range. Furthermore, >40% of the small RNAs from cis-NATs and trans-NATs carry an A as their 5′-terminal nucleotides.

A substantial portion of the transcripts are involved in both cis-NATs and trans-NATs, and many trans-NATs can form many-to-many relationships, indicating that NATs may form complex regulatory networks in O. sativa. This study is the first genome-wide investigation of NAT-derived small RNAs in O. sativa. It reveals the importance of NATs in biogenesis of small RNAs and broadens our understanding of the roles of NAT-derived smallRNAs in gene regulation, particularly in response to environmental stimuli.

Source - http://genome.cshlp.org/content/19/1/70.abstract?sid=40206306-7c2e-4b18-96b3-8319fa594a4b

Omega-3 fatty acids, commonly found in fish, appears to play a significant role in improving nervous system function, reveals a new study.

The researchers insist two omega-3 fatty acids – docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) have been found to avoid sensory overload, maybe by maintaining nerve-cell membranes.
The finding connects low omega-3s to the information-processing problems found in people with schizophrenia; bipolar, obsessive-compulsive, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorders; Huntington’s disease; and other afflictions of the nervous system.
"It is an uphill battle now to reverse the message that ‘fats are bad,’ and to increase omega-3 fats in our diet," said Norman Salem Jr., PhD, who led this study at the Laboratory of Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics at the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.
The body cannot make these essential nutrients from scratch. It gets them by metabolizing their precursor, á-linolenic acid (LNA), or from foods or dietary supplements with DHA and EPA in a readily usable form.
"Humans can convert less than one percent of the precursor into DHA, making DHA an essential nutrient in the human diet," said Irina Fedorova, PhD, one of the paper’s co-authors.
EPA is already known for its anti-inflammatory and cardiovascular effects, but DHA makes up more than 90 percent of the omega-3s in the brain (which has no EPA), retina and nervous system in general.
During the study, the researchers fed four different diets with no or varying types and amounts of omega-3s to four groups of pregnant mice and then their offspring.
They measured how the offspring, once grown, responded to a classic test of nervous-system function in which healthy animals are exposed to a sudden loud noise. Normally, animals flinch. However, when they hear a softer tone in advance, they flinch much less.
It appears that normal nervous systems use that gentle warning to prepare instinctively for future stimuli, an adaptive process called sensorimotor gating.
The mice raised on DHA and EPA showed normal, adaptive sensorimotor gating by responding in a significantly calmer way to the loud noises that followed soft tones.
The research is published in journal Behavioural Neuroscience .

Source: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life/health-fitness/health/Fish-can-help-improve-nervous-system-function/articleshow/5347748.cms

Alternative splicing can enhance transcriptome plasticity and proteome diversity. In plants, alternative splicing can be manifested at different developmental stages, and is frequently associated with specific tissue types or environmental conditions such as abiotic stress. We mapped the Arabidopsis transcriptome at single-base resolution using the Illumina platform for ultrahigh-throughput RNA sequencing (RNA-seq).

Deep transcriptome sequencing confirmed a majority of annotated introns and identified thousands of novel alternatively spliced mRNA isoforms. Our analysis suggests that at least ∼42% of intron-containing genes in Arabidopsisare alternatively spliced; this is significantly higher than previous estimates based on cDNA/expressed sequence tag sequencing.

Random validation confirmed that novel splice isoforms empirically predicted by RNA-seq can be detected in vivo. Novel introns detected by RNA-seq were substantially enriched in nonconsensus terminal dinucleotide splice signals. Alternative isoforms with premature termination codons (PTCs) comprised the majority of alternatively spliced transcripts.

Using an example of an essential circadian clock gene, we show that intron retention can generate relatively abundant PTC⁺ isoforms and that this specific event is highly conserved among diverse plant species. Alternatively spliced PTC⁺isoforms can be potentially targeted for degradation by the nonsense mediated mRNA decay (NMD) surveillance machinery or regulate the level of functional transcripts by the mechanism of regulated unproductive splicing and translation (RUST).

We demonstrate that the relative ratios of the PTC⁺ and reference isoforms for several key regulatory genes can be considerably shifted under abiotic stress treatments. Taken together, our results suggest that like in animals, NMD and RUST may be widespread in plants and may play important roles in regulating gene expression.

Source - http://genome.cshlp.org/content/early/2009/11/18/gr.093302.109.abstract

Natural antisense transcripts (NATs) have been shown to play important roles in post-transcriptional regulation through the RNA interference pathway. We have combined pyrophosphate-based high-throughput sequencing and computational analysis to identify and analyze, in genome scale, cis-NAT and trans-NAT small RNAs that are derived under normal conditions and in response to drought and salt stresses in the staple plant Oryza sativa. Computationally, we identified 344 cis-NATs and 7142 trans-NATs that are formed by protein-coding genes. From the deep sequencing data, we found 108 cis-NATs and 7141trans-NATs that gave rise to small RNAs from their overlapping regions. Consistent with early findings, the majority of these 108 cis-NATs seem to be associated with specific conditions or developmental stages. Our analyses also revealed several interesting results. The overlapping regions of the cis-NATs and trans-NATs appear to be more enriched with smallRNA loci than non-overlapping regions. The small RNAs generated from cis-NATs and trans-NATs have a length bias of 21 nt, even though their lengths spread over a large range. Furthermore, >40% of the small RNAs from cis-NATs and trans-NATs carry an A as their 5′-terminal nucleotides. A substantial portion of the transcripts are involved in both cis-NATs and trans-NATs, and many trans-NATs can form many-to-many relationships, indicating that NATs may form complex regulatory networks in O. sativa. This study is the first genome-wide investigation of NAT-derived small RNAs in O. sativa. It reveals the importance of NATs in biogenesis of small RNAs and broadens our understanding of the roles of NAT-derived smallRNAs in gene regulation, particularly in response to environmental stimuli.

Source - http://genome.cshlp.org/content/19/1/70.abstract?sid=40206306-7c2e-4b18-96b3-8319fa594a4b

Which metal is always found in free state in nature-Gold.
• Bauxite is an ore of-Aluminum.
• Material used for bleaching pulp is-Sodium Hypo -chlori
• Which gas is leaked in Bhopal gas tragedy-Methyl Isocyanides.
Which element is common in all organic compounds is -Chlorine.
• What is the function of Green leaves in plants –Photosynthesis.
• Which is largest Gland in human body- Liver
• Which is largest Organ in human body –Skin
• Which is longest Bone in human body –Femur• Malaraia is a disease which effect the –Spleen
• Leukemia is a disease of the –Blood.
• Rickets is a disease of the –Bones.
• ECG is used for the diagnosis of ailments of –Heart.
• Food is normally digested in the –Small intestines.
• The main function of the kidney is –To remove waste product from body
• The human cells contains –46 Chromosomes• Centigrade and Fahrenheit scales resemble at ( –40C).
• Study of insects is called – Entomology.
• The inner layer of the skin is called – Dermis
• Nucleus of an atom has – Neutrons and Protons
• Marsh gas is – Methane
• In fireworks the green flame is produced because of – Barium
• Nuclear fission is caused by the impact –Neutron
• Atom Bomb is based on principal of – Nuclear Fission.
• Glass is made from the mixture of – Sand and Salt.
• Permanent hardness of water may be removed by the addition of – Sodium Carbonate.
• P.V.C is obtained by the polymerization of – Vinylchtoride
• The pursuit form of iron is – Cast Iron
• The element found on the surface of the moon is –Titanium
• One joule is equivalent to-10 ergs
• The most efficient engine is –Electric• Wisdom teeth normally grow during the age of- 17- 30 years
• The yellow colures of urine is due to the presence of –Urochrome.
• Life of RBC in human blood is of –120 days.
• How many teeth are known as milk teeth in human beings – 20.
• Colure of the skin due to presence of -Melanin
• Bile juice secreted by -Lactro meter
• The smallest cell in the human body are –Blood cells.
• Food is mainly digested in –small intestine.
• The number of ribs in human body is –24

• A nuclear reactor uses as fuel –Uranium.
• The Velocity of light was first measured by –Roemer.
• The purity of milk is checked by –Lacto meter.
• The hottest part of the flame lies in its –Non luminous Zone.
• The first life came on this earth –In Water
• An object weights maximum in –Vacuum
• Which is the semiconductor –Silicon
• Ic Chips for Computers are usually made of –Silicon
• A device used for converting AC into DC is called-Rectifier.
• The volume Urine produced in an adult human every 24 hours is-1.5Liters.
• The average Gestation period of Sheep is –150 days.
• The Smallest possible unit of a comical compounds is –Molecule
• The Vitamin which contains Cobalt is –B12
• The first metal to used by man was Copper
• All acid essentially contain the element –Hydrogen
• The main active continent of tea and coffee is –Caffeine.
• Pencil lead is made up of –Graphite.
• The human body contains the maximum amount of –water.
• The smallest bone in the human body is – Stirrup
• Total number of bones in human skill are- 30
• The hitting element in an electric iron is made of –Tungsten.• Acquired immune-deficiency syndrome(AIDS)is caused by –Virus
• The light with the longest wave length in the visible spectrum is – Red.
• In the electric bulb, the gas used is – Inert.
• Which Gland is called the master Gland –Pituitary
• How many Bones in adult human body –206
• How many Bones in child’s body –300
• What is the temperature of normal human body –36.9C.
• Which is the helps in clotting in blood –Vitamin K.
• Total volume of blood in normal adult human body 5-6iiters.
• Red blood corpuscles(RBC)are formed in the bone marrow
• The largest part of the human brain is the –cerebrum
• What is main component of the bone and teeth –Calcium Phosphate
• The main constituent of hemoglobin is –Transport Oxygen
• The main function of Hemoglobin is - Transport Oxygen.• The chemical name of table salt is-Sodium Chloride.
• Chemical name of Vitamin C is –Ascorbic Acid.
• Bone is used as fertilizer because it contains the plant nutrient-Phosphorus.
• Baking soda is-Sodium Bicarbonat.
• Plaster of Paris is made from-Gypsum.
• Which element is common in all acids-Hydrogen.

Scientists and researchers who want high-level clinical research jobs need to take the right approach to jobs early in their careers. The pressures of clinical research along with international competition for these jobs make deliberate career planning necessary for any professional. There are a few steps that can help clinical research aspirants of all ages find their dream jobs in a timely manner.

A clinical researcher should not shy away from non-profit work early in her career to gain appreciation for private and government jobs. Advocacy groups who conduct clinical research offer jobs to young scientists with commitments to public service and sound science. The sacrifice of lucrative salaries in favour of assisting an independent research group find methods of fighting cancer will help you develop an ethical compass during your career.

Every researcher should work with an established scientist in the first few years of a career to learn the subtleties of clinical research jobs. The earnest and often frank advice of a veteran scientist who has worked multiple jobs in the past will inform your approach to clinical research jobs. It is important to select a senior scientist in your early career with a personality and teaching style that match your approach to clinical research. The value of a mentor/protégée relationship rests on sober expectations and ground rules that make both sides feel comfortable.

The time spent on journal articles should be considered an investment in career advancement as well as intellectual enlightenment. Some of the greatest feats in clinical research have arisen from obscure journal articles that build on years of hard work. You can collaborate with other scientists to promote a series of findings that extend beyond your clinical research experiences. Every clinical researcher needs to publish individual articles to break away from “group think” and develop a written voice that will impress experienced scientists.

One of the best ways to show off clinical research skills is attendance at national and international conferences. The presentation of your findings in front of an audience of your peers can bring life to raw data and dense pages of information. Your career as a clinical researcher can take off quickly in a few months by networking at national and international conferences. These conferences also give clinical researchers an opportunity to learn about government initiatives, college programmes and private investments in research that lead to new jobs.

An ideal option for people who wish to build a solid career in the medical field, the clinical research associate profession brings many financial benefits and also a set of personal satisfactions, allowing practitioners to sustain their professional activity for the benefits of the community. Apart from the main function of monitoring clinical trials, the clinical research associate profession involves a wide variety of roles, such as verifying clinical site activities, making regular on site visits, reviewing and checking the accuracy of case report forms, as well as permanently interacting with clinical research investigators, all activities having to respect the imposed clinical protocols and good clinical practice guidelines.

It is important to note that the clinical research associate profession involves a lot of responsibility and dedication, rendering a long-term career in the branch quite demanding. However, clinical research associates have the opportunity to work in a clean and structured environment, to permanently interact with people and to ensure the protection of the rights, safety, health and well-being of human study subjects that participate in clinical trials.

The basic role of a clinical research associate, also referred to as a monitor, is to supervise the entire progress of clinical trials, initiated and conducted by physicians at hospitals, clinics, physician's offices and other medical establishments. Apart from being responsible for the health and well-being of clinical study participants, clinical research associates have to ensure the accuracy, quality and integrity of the scientific data collected during trials. The extensive set of roles and duties characteristic to practicing clinical research associates include ensuring that the physicians respect good clinical practices and study protocols, checking the required documentation for each study participant, ensuring that all side-effects and adverse physical responses are appropriately reported and filed and ensuring the proper filing of various regulatory documents.

Clinical research associates are generally employed by pharmaceutical companies, medical research organizations and other institutions in the medical field. The profession involves a lot of field work, practitioners having to visit various sites and to maintain permanent connection with clinical study coordinators and investigators.

Persons who wish to follow the career of clinical research associate attend rigorous training programs to show good practical, decisional and communicational skills in the process. All persons who possess the skills and abilities required by the clinical research associate profession can easily obtain the proper training by attending clinical research associate training programs, regardless of their previous level of experience in the medical field.

Official clinical research training programs allow attending trainees to rapidly familiarize with the theoretical curriculum, and polish their practical skills and abilities required in their future profession. Instructor-led clinical research associate training programs are well-structured in a comprehensive manner, facilitating the process of learning and allowing graduates to leave with a complete baggage of knowledge and practical experience. A set of course examinations, self study and evaluations further prepare students for their final exams. The keys to becoming a well-trained, clinical research associate are attending to a proper clinical research training program and rigorously preparing for the final exams.

What is it?

Malignant mesothelioma is a rare type of cancer that occurs in the thin layer of cells lining the body's internal organs, known as the mesothelium. There are three recognized types of mesothelioma. Pleural mesothelioma is the most common form of the disease, accounting for roughly 70% of cases, and occurs in the lining of the lung known as the pleura.

Peritoneal mesothelioma occurs in the lining of the abdominal cavity, known as the peritoneum and pericardial mesothelioma originates in the pericardium, which lines the heart.

Who is at risk for Mesothelioma?

The only recognized cause of mesothelioma is exposure to asbestos, though other factors such as smoking can make the disease more or less likely in some individuals. Industrial laborers were widely subjected to asbestos exposure on the job, as the material was widely used throughout the 20th century. Few of these workers knew they were being exposed to asbestos, however, despite the fact that many manufacturers were aware the material was hazardous.

In most cases, mesothelioma symptoms will not appear in an individual exposed to asbestos until many years after the exposure has occurred. Those who believe they may have been exposed to asbestos should fill out our form to receive a free mesothelioma information packet, detailing treatment options, emerging therapies, and jobsite exposure information.

When you find you are pregnant, whether it is the first time or the fourth time it can seem like the whole world has new information for you to digest and make decisions on.

One of the things you are sure to hear about is banking your baby's umbilical cord blood, this idea is relatively new so there is a good chance that you don't really know why you would want to bank the cord blood.

1- Protection against future ill health

You are expecting a baby and the last thing you want to think about is that there is even the faintest possibility that your baby will ever be sick. As horrible as it is to think about any of our kids getting ill, it does happens and any insurance you can have to protect them is worthwhile.

2- Advancing Medical Knowledge

While the benefits that you will gain at the moment from the blood you store may not seem worth the time or effort, no one really knows what the future holds. This is especially true for medicine, illnesses that had high mortality rates 30 years ago are now treatable and in many cases completely curable.

3- Help Others

As well as helping your child, or one of their siblings at some time in the future, your choice to save the umbilical cord could well save another child or another member of your family.

While it may not seem like something that would have happened in our parents day that is no reason to just throw this simple method of having some sort of insurance against possible future illness.

Disclaimer: As always, my advice to readers is to seek the advice of your physician before making any significant changes in medications, diet, or level of physical activity.

Dr. Wascher is an oncologic surgeon, a professor of surgery, a widely published author, and a Surgical Oncologist at the Kaiser Permanente healthcare system in Orange County, California. Send your feedback to Dr. Wascher at: rwascher@doctorwascher.net
http://doctorwascher.com

The number of cases of swine flu in England continued to fall last week (week ending 9 August). The Health Protection Agency (HPA) estimates there were 25,000 new cases of swine flu in England last week, compared with 30,000 the week before and 100,000 the week before that. Cases of swine flu have fallen in all regions and among all age groups.

The disease is generally mild in most people so far, but is proving severe in a small minority of cases. So far 371 people have been hospitalised in England, while 44 people have died.

Swine flu vaccine

The government has announced that priority for the swine flu vaccine will be given to at-risk groups. These include pregnant women and people with serious underlying health conditions.

Vaccinations for these groups are expected to begin in the autumn. Steps are being taken to extend the vaccination programme to other people once this stage has been completed.

Swine flu - treatment and prevention

If you are in England, you can get antivirals to treat swine flu from a local collection point without seeing your GP. If you are in Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland, contact your GP or specific helpline. Reduce your risk of catching swine flu by following good hand hygiene – CATCH IT, BIN IT, KILL IT. Antiviral drugs - Tamiflu and Relenza

Swine flu is being treated with antiviral drugs such as Tamiflu and Relenza. Antiviral drugs work by preventing the flu virus from reproducing - to be effective you need to take them within 48 hours of the symptoms beginning. This can reduce the risk of complications and possibly shorten the illness by a day.

If the National Pandemic Flu Service or your GP confirm you have swine flu, you will be told where your nearest antiviral collection point is so your 'flu friend' - a friend or relative who does not have swine flu - can pick up antiviral drugs for you

So far, the present guidelines stipulate that a person suspected of influenza A H1N1 need to be referred to an identified govt. health facility. He/she needs to be kept in an isolation facility in that hospital and if found positive, is treated accordingly.

In order to make the testing facility for H1N1 more accessible at large and due to the onset of the Influenza season in the country, it has been decided to revise the existing guidelines.

Under the new guidelines, any person with flu like symptoms such as fever, cough, sore throat, cold, running nose etc. should go to a designated Government facility for giving his/her sample for testing for the H1N1 virus. After clinical assessment, the designated medical officer would decide on the need for testing. Except for cases that are severe, the patient would be allowed to go home (This was not allowed under the existing guidelines).

The sample of the suspect case would be collected and sent to the notified laboratory for testing. If tested as positive for H1N1 and in case the symptoms are mild, the patient would be informed and given the option of admission into the hospital or isolation and treatment at his own home.

In case the patient opts for home isolation and treatment, he/she would be provided with detailed guidelines / safety measures to be strictly adhered to by the entire household of the patient. He/ she would have to provide full contact details of his entire household. The house hold and social contacts would be provided with the preventive treatment.

Notwithstanding the above guidelines, the decision of the doctor of the notified hospital about admitting the patient would be final.

In case the test is negative, the patient will accordingly be informed.

These guidelines have been issued by the Government in public interest and shall be reviewed from time to time depending on the spread of the pandemic and its severity in the country. These guidelines would however not apply to passengers who are identified through screening at the points of entry. The existing policy of isolating passengers with flu like symptoms would continue.

Swine flu (swine influenza) is a disease of pigs. It is a highly contagious respiratory disease caused by one of many Influenza A viruses. Approximately 1% to 4% of pigs that get swine flu die from it. It is spread among pigs by direct and indirect contact, aerosols, and from pigs that are infected but do not have symptoms. In many parts of the world pigs are vaccinated against swine flu.
Most commonly, swine flu is of the H1N1 influenza subtype. However, they can sometimes come from the other types, such as H1N2, H3N1, and H3N2.
The current outbreak of swine flu that has infected humans is of the H1N1 type - this type is not as dangerous as some others.

Avian Influenza (Bird Flu) can also infect pigs

Avian flu and human seasonal flu viruses can infect pigs, as well as swine influenza. The H3N2 influenza virus subtype, a virulent one, is thought to have come from pigs - it went on to infect humans.
It is possible for pigs to be infected with more than one flu virus subtype simultaneously. When this happens the genes of the viruses have the opportunity to mingle. When different flu subtypes mix they can create a new virus which contains the genes from several sources - a reassortant virus.

Although swine influenza tends to just infect pigs, they can, and sometimes do, jump the species barrier and infect humans.

What is the risk for human health?

Outbreaks of human infection from a virus which came from pigs (swine influenza) do happen and are sometimes reported. Symptoms will generally be similar to seasonal human influenzas - this can range from mild or no symptoms at all, to severe and possibly fatal pneumonia.
As swine flu symptoms are similar to typical human seasonal flu symptoms, and other upper respiratory tract infections, detection of swine flu in humans often does not happen, and when it does it is usually purely by chance through seasonal influenza surveillance. If symptoms are mild it is extremely unlikely that any connection to swine influenza is found - even if it is there. In other words, unless the doctors and experts are specifically looking for swine flu, it is rarely detected. Because of this, we really do not know what the true human infection rate is.

Examples of known swine flu infecting humans

Since the World Health Organization's (WHO's) implementation of IHR (2005) in 2007, they have been notified of swine influenza cases from the USA and Spain.
In March/April 2009 human cases of influenza A swine fever (H1N1) were first reported in California and Texas. Later other states also reported cases. A significant number of human cases during the same period have also been reported in Mexico - starting just in Mexico City, but now throughout various parts of the country. More cases are being reported in Canada, Europe, and New Zealand - mainly from people who have been in Mexico.

How does a human catch swine influenza?

• From contact with infected pigs (most common way)
• From contact with infected humans (much less common way)

In cases when humans have infected other humans close contact was necessary with the infected person, and they nearly always occurred in closed groups of people.

Can I eat pork meat and pork products?

If the pork meat and pork food products have been handled properly transmission of swine influenza to humans is not possible. Cooking pork meats to a temperature of 70C (160F) kills the virus. So the answer is YES, pork meat and pork food products are safe to eat.

Where have pigs been infected?

As swine influenza infection among pigs is not an internationally notifiable disease we cannot be completely sure. Swine influenza infection among pigs is known to be endemic in the USA. Outbreaks have also occurred in other parts of North America, South American, Europe, Africa, China, Japan, and other parts of Asia.

Is there a pandemic risk?

People who are not in close contact with pigs generally have no immunity to the swine influenza viruses - they are less likely to be able to prevent a virus infection. If the virus infects enough people in a given area, the risk of an influenza pandemic is significantly greater. Experts say it is very hard to predict what impact a flu pandemic caused by a swine influenza virus would have on the global human population. This would depend on how virulent the virus is, what existing immunity among humans there already is, plus several other factors.

Do we have a specific swine flu vaccine?

No - not for humans.

Will current human flu vaccines help protect people from swine influenza infection?

We really don't know. Influenza viruses are adapting and changing all the time. If a vaccine was made, it would have to be specifically for a current strain that is circulating for it to be effective. The WHO says it needs access to as many viruses as possible so that it can isolate the most appropriate candidate vaccine.

What are the signs and symptoms of swine influenza in humans?

They are similar to those of regular flu, and include:

• Body aches
• Chills
• Cough
• Diarrhea (less common)
• Headache
• Sore throat
• Temperature (fever)
• Tiredness (fatigue)
• Vomiting (less common)

What medications are there?

There are some drugs around that can effectively treat swine flu infection in humans - and many types of flu infections in humans. There are two main types:

• adamantanes (amantadine and remantadine)
• inhibitors of influenza neuraminidase (oseltamivir and zanamivir)

Most previous swine influenza human cases recovered completely without the need for medical attention.

What can I do to protect myself?

• Wash your hands regularly with soap
• Try to stay healthy
• Get plenty of sleep
• Do plenty of exercise
• Try to manage your stress
• Drink plenty of liquids
• Eat a well balanced diet
• Refrain from touching surfaces which may have the virus
• Do not get close to people who are sick
• Stay away from crowded areas if there is a swine flu outbreak in your area

If I am infected, how can I stop others from becoming infected?

• Limit your contact with other people
• Do not go to work or school
• When you cough or sneeze cover your mouth with a tissue. If you do not have a tissue, cover your mouth and nose.
• Put your used tissues in a waste basket
• Wash your hands and face regularly
• Keep all surfaces you have touched clean
• Follow your doctor's instructions

Mexico City - Some good news

In Mexico City, where a sizeable number of people have become infected with H1N1 swine flu, authorities are urging people with flu symptoms to go straight to their doctors or a local hospital. They insist that the flu is completely treatable if the patient comes in straight away.

What is Swine Flu - Video

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Influenza Division has produced a video all about swine flu.
This video includes information on the signs and symptoms of swine flu, how swine flu is transmitted, what medicines are available to treat it and steps that people can take to help protect themselves from it. There are also some tips on what to do if you become ill with swine flu.

Map of Swine Flu Outbreaks

If you would like to keep up-to-date with the locations of the latest outbreaks of H1N1, see the map of swine flu outbreaks.